Introduction
One of the most complex and intriguing phenomena of Indian performance tradition is the prevalence of performance modes which have evolved from or been influenced by martial arts. These modes range from folk, ritual and mask performances to highly evolved forms of dance drama. The nature and degree of transformation from the martial trait to the stylized and aesthetic has equally great range. While martial trait remains apparent and strong in some forms as in Kathakali dance theatre of Kerala, it has been absorbed and has achieved a high degree of stylization in others, as in Seraikella Chhau masked dances.
 Why should martial art lead to the evolution of performance forms or inter-act with a form in its evolution and vitally influence its nature and design of movements? Integration of psycho-physical impulses, concentration and control of energy, flexibility and quick reflex action, overall agility, stamina, body balance, plasticity and a sense of rhythm are the virtues of both a martial artist and a performer. There are several varied processes in operation in the working of this phenomena. While in some cases the martial art and the performance forms co-exist, in others, the tradition of martial art has disappeared leaving behind its elements in the performance forms.
 The tradition of martial arts is not merely a matter of holding and hurling weapons and engaging in combats, it is a composite culture incorporating elements from the whole range of peoples' social, religious, artistic and cultural life. Its origin is associated with the creation myth as in the case of Thang-ta of Manipur, and the combat choreography is linked with the cosmology of Manipuris. A sequence of Thang-ta is performed for sanctifying the space in the most ancient ritual Lai-Haroba. Kalaripayatta, the martial art of Kerala, has a legendry origin, and Kalari, the arena for imparting training, has a ritualistic ethos with the images of several deities installed in the arena. The history of Kalari tradition and the glories of the fighters are preserved and sung in the folk ballads of the region.
In almost all the martial traditions, elaborate initiation ceremonies are observed when mantras are chanted, offerings made and blood oath taken for using the martial skin only for self defence and for a righteous cause. Religious rites are also performed during various stages of training, demonstration and combat. Secrecy and sacredness surrounded the world of training, practice, preservation and transmission of martial knowledge. In some cases the practitioners of a particular martial style organize themselves into a secret sect with a restricted membership and follow strict rules of discipline and secrecy.
Weapons used for combat, especially bladed ones, are greatly venerated. Religious motifs and symbols are often engraved on the handles of swords. The sword is as much soaked in blood as in racial memory. In Manipur, the sword is symbolic of a clan, and the clan basis of the sword determines the fighting choreography. The medical system, special massage, occult beliefs and practices are also part of martial culture. The massage developed for Kalari trainees has been taken over for the training of the Kathakali actor along with some of Kalari exercise. Such a broad-based and deep-rooted martial culture, though cultivated over the centuries, is as basic to man as the tools of production. In tribal communities the tools of production have also been used as weapons for fighting.
 Most of the martial art systems have strong meditative and contemplative character which is reflected in their exercises and movements. The meditative quality in martial arts is also the result of some of the Yoga techniques and postures integrated with martial arts. The principle and techniques of proper breathing while practicing martial art also adds to its meditative quality. Breathing out improves the timing of responses, and breathing in helps in developing inner strength and concentration. This inward quality and meditative character of the martial arts is also related to their ritualistic and religious context.
In almost all styles of martial arts in a combative situation, the two artists look at each other's eyes, and maintain strong gaze throughout the combat. This high degree of concentration further enhances meditative quality. The gazing is so important in the combat situation that in case of Kalari, the teacher often advises the trainee to turn the body into eye. Also in the case of Thang-Ta, a teacher advises the trainee "to listen with the eyes and see with the ears". There is such a great emphasis on concentration that the trainee is reminded, as in Kalari, to treat the weapon as an extension of his body, or to turn every part of the body into a weapon. Such a concentrated stillness is cultivated by the practitioner of martial arts for registering his strong presence.
Stances and postures in martial arts have the same purpose and importance as in dance. Stance determines the dynamics of movements. Stances and postures are the fundamentals of any system of martial art, and it is only by learning and executing them correctly that a martial artist can make correct movements and develop a sense of rhythm, plant his feet on the ground, and distribute the body weight in consonance with the movements. Also, fluency of movements, accuracy and effectiveness of kicks and blows are possible only by executing correct stances and postures. It is the same with the performer, actor and dancer. This most basic factor common to two art forms brings them closer in their very nature.
In classical dance tradition, out of 108 Karnas, some art of martial and acrobatic nature. These are carved in relief on the walls of the Shiva temple at Chidambaram in Tamil Nadu. While some show holding and hurling of weapons, others show acrobatic feats. Traditionally there has always been a common area and a meeting point between the martial and the performance art; and martial arts have not only influenced the evolution of the performance forms, but have also been moving towards performance art.
 Martial arts have also fascinating the traditional artists, sculptors, and image makers, and they have tried to capture the energy and movements of martial artist. Martial art techniques, stances, postures, fighting bouts and weaponry have been well documented in visual arts in most of the countries: in the frescos of the famous Shaolin monastery of China, in wood block prints and scrolls of Japan, and in sculptural panels and stone images of Indonesia and India. In Bali, stone images of dwarpalas (gatekeepers), depict martial ardour.
The tradition of martial arts has the same cultural setting as the theatrical arts, and this creates many links between the two seemingly opposite arts. Also, the principles and techniques of martial arts are governed by the same aesthetic concepts and values, which govern artistic modes and performance forms. They have a common terminology denoting some important aesthetic concepts. It is this commonality of aesthetics between the two arts, apparently of divergent nature, that fascinates evolution of a variety of performance forms from the tradition of martial arts, and also provides for constant exchange and interaction between the two. The training is aimed at acquiring both the trainee in martial art and in dance to discover his or her ki (life force), and allow it to flow with the surrounding ki-energy field. The aesthetic concept of bhava, that is emotion, is as much applied to the martial arts as to the performing, literary and visual arts. Unless a trainee or a performer of martial arts is able to infuse his bodily movements with bhava, it remains at the mere physical and lower level. A Kalari teacher constantly keeps the trainee reminding of sharir bhava, that is body expression, in executing a martial movement.
Having given this general background to the tradition of martial arts, we could now look at the contemporary situation with regard to the relationship between the martial arts and traditional performance forms. It is of interest that the martial arts movements undergo a process of stylization when used in a performance form. The nature and degree of transformation and stylization varies from form to form, and also helps in the evolution of a variety of forms. While the martial trait remains obvious and strong in some forms, it has achieved high degree of stylization and aesthetic dimensions in others. There are performance forms which have fully absorbed the elements of martial arts in their structure. The question of nature and degree of stylization of the martial movements is both complex and of great interest for the scholars of kinetics is view of the fact that the martial art movements with their basis in bird and animal imagery have already undergone first phase of stylization.
Overview
If we take an overview of the phenomenon of the linkage between the martial arts and performance tradition, we find that several processes are in operation, and that the relationship between the two has been both very basic and intimate, and also constantly evolving and changing. In regard to the present situation, in some cases, the martial arts and the related traditional performances co-exist, while in others the tradition of martial art has disappeared leaving behind its elements in the existing performance forms. The Chhau dances are the example of this tendency. There is yet a third category of performance forms which developed under the direct influence of martial arts, and having absorbed the martial elements, have totally dissociated themselves from the martial tradition. Kathakali is an example of this process. On the other hand, martial arts in many traditions, having served the purpose of influencing performance forms, and also having lost their martial function, are fast becoming performance art. This is the tendency shared by many systems of martial arts and traditions.
It is mainly in three regions that we find this phenomenon of coexistence of martial arts and related or derived performance forms. These are Kerala in the southern India, Manipur in the North-eastern region, and the Chhau dance region, comprising three states, namely Jharkhand (previously in Bihar), West Bengal and Orissa in the east region. There is a tradition of martial arts in Tamil Nadu also, and there are traditional performance forms, such as, the theatrical form, Terrukuttu (street play) and Devarattam, ritual dance of Tamil Nadu. Both these show distinct influence of martial art in their foot-work, gait and body movements. Here we will discuss only three regions and traditions, namely, Thang-Ta (Thang=sword + Ta=spear) of Manipur, Kalari of Kerala, and Parikhanda of the Chhau dance region.
In the case of Manipur, where martial culture is rich as well as pervasive and has co-existed in a relationship of mutual exchange and interaction with the performance tradition, the link between the two is very close. Almost all types of performance forms from folk dances to ritualistic performances and classical dance, have their basis in Tang-Ta. In the case of Kalari of Kerala, there is a great variety of performance forms-from simple folk dances such as Kolkali and Velkkali and Krishnattam which have links with the tradition of Kalari, both in the training of the performer, and also in body movements. In the case of Parikhanda (pari=shield + khand=sword) of the Chhau region, the situation is different from Thang-Ta and Kalari. Here the tradition of Parikhanda, having given rise to the Chhau dance, has disappeared, and its martial elements have been fully absorbed by the Chhau dances.
Kalari Tradition
 In the case of Kalari of Kerala, the relationship between the martial art and a variety of performance forms from folk dances to highly evolved dance theatre Kathakali, is of varying nature. In several of the folk dances, including even those performed with holding a stick or a sword, the influence of Kalari techniques and movements in minimal, even though the name suggests martial dance. It is primarily in the swinging and whirling movements and flourish of the sword that one finds an indirect influence of or similarly with Kalari. Also, the wielding of sword and shield in some of the dances around and over the head, as if in defence, can be taken to be an influence of Kalari. Half and full circling of the body, a characteristic part of preliminary training in Kalari, has been taken over in training and/or performance of several dances including Kathakali. Also steps, jumps, body bends and hops have their basis in Kalari exercises.
 Several of the Kalari training exercises have been adopted with suitable modifications for the training of the Kathakali actor including special massage system. Most of the body attitudes, postures, leaps, flips of Kalari have acquired a subdued character in Kathakali. There are a few fighting scenes in Kathakali plays, and fighting choreography involves taking positions of challenge and encounter, circling and inter locking of the arms. But it is a highly stylized stage fighting and blends beautifully with the general choreographic structure of Kathakali. It has absolutely no martial character. Several of Kalasams, pure dance units, both in Kathakali and Krishnattam, have their origin in the Kalari postures and movements.
In Kalari itself, the movements based on animals and birds such as elephant, horse, tiger, cock, boar, cat, fish and snake have a highly stylized character. Larger sequences of Kalari, movements combining movements of more than one of these animals and birds, such as the one used for solution by a Kalari trainee, are the most elegant and graceful, they involve the body of the trainee in a complex geometric pattern.
Thang-Ta
 According to a local legend, all movements of the Meities (Manipuris) have originated from Thang-Ta. The legend throws light on the integral and basic relationship between the martial art and the performance tradition in Manipur. From the folk and tribal dances, especially those of the several of the Naga tribes, to the cultural and ritualistic performance form, Nata-Sankirtana, and the most ancient and elaborate ritualistic performance form, Lai Haroba, to the classical Ras dances-all show elements of thang, that is sword or ta, that is spear in movement patterns and overall design of the performance form.
The martial trait is evident in performances in their basic stances, postures, body attitudes, steps, footwork and hand movements. Soft stamping, thrust, intricate footwork, short leaps, frequent quarter and half turns, and piercing actions characterize ta. Also, there is greater suppleness and fluidity action in ta, and the movements have vertical orientation to suit the size and shape of the spear. Overhand flourishes, circling of the body, slashing, cutting and piercing actions are distinctive to thang movements. There is greater agility and mobility in action and the movements have horizontal orientation to suit the size and shape of the sword. Spear movements are earth-bound and gravity-oriented while those of the sword constantly seek liberation from gravity. It is in the leaps and jumps in both that the movements are anti-gravity.
 Kartal Cholam dance performed with graceful circular body movements executes interesting spatial designs which resemble floor designs of spear. Constant dipping of the body and the crouching position in Kartal Cholam is inspired by spear, where it is utilized as a defensive device and also as a preparation for attack. In movement patterns, abrupt dipping of the body and quick reflexive springing action are akin to the strategic devices of dodging and parrying in Thang-Ta. Dancers constantly do pivoting on the leg, and the other leg is lifted to the waist level with the knee extended. This posture has also come from Thang-Ta movements.
The steps and foot work of Kartal Cholam are inspired by both Thang and Ta movements. The stepping is rhythmic and the body movements are graceful. Short diagonal jumps, turns and throwing legs side ways and bringing back to the original foot position, kicks and other movements are inspired by Ta. Most characteristic movements of several forms of Manipur, namely, the rotation of the wrist of the both hands in a figure-eight pattern inspired by the movements holding sword is also found in Kartal Cholam, and several other performance forms. The figure-eight movement is based on one of the elementary pafals, or diagram, based on snake-path, for combat choreography. The figure-eight pattern is followed by foot work in spear and in sword by hand movements. Because of the differences in sword and spear techniques and movements, the trainees have to learn their exercises separately; some even specialize in either of the two. Also, the two, sword and spear, have helped in the evolution of two different types of dances.
The classical Rasa dances celebrated the love sports of the divine lovers, Krishna and Radha, also show affinity with the Thang-Ta movements in body attitudes, steps, gaits and hand movements. The basic position taken in performing Ta is also adopted in Ras dances. The wrist rotating movement with open palm in a figure-eight pattern is a most distinctive feature of Ras dance, and this also is taken from the movements of Thang. In Thang this movement is intended for defence from two opponents; the left hand is used to block the opponent, while the right hand is meant to attack.
The action of holding sword and shield fixing the wrist of the two hands in a fixed position and turning them as a chakra, a wheel, has a deep symbolic meaning of reunion between purush and prakriti, the male and female energy. This chakra position is utilized for creating hand gestures in Ras dances. This done by retaining the crossed wrist position, and then rotation of the wrist with open palms in different formations. Dance movements with quarter, semi-quarter and full body turn in and out in Ras, and some other dance forms are inspired by similar martial movements executed by holding spear. The semicircular, soft, rhythmic and flowering movements in Ras and some other ritualistic dances have also their basis in Thang-Ta movements.
Chhau Dance Belt
The Chhau mask dances prevalent in the three States, namely, Jharkhand, West Bengal and Orissa in the eastern region are unique in the ancient and rich dance tradition of India. Their location in these three different states is the result of the reorganization of Indian States after independence in 1947 and recently also. All the three styles share many common features and have developed in a relationship of mutual exchange and interaction. Thus, geographically, one may say that there is a kind of Chhau belt making and inter-state arch. The Chhau dances represent folk classical continuum, a phenomenon peculiar to Indian art tradition. They have links with folk and tribal dances of the region and their basis is in the martial art, Parikhanda, of the region. The entire technical terminology both of parikhanda and Chhau dances is similar as it is in the local language Oriya.
 As in case of other martial system, Parikhanda movements are based on animal and bird imagery, such as, tiger, crane, fish, horse, dear and goat. But what is special to Parikhanda is that many movements are inspired by the daily chores of a house wife, and also the routine of a farmer in the field. Sweeping the floor, pounding of rice, making alpna (ritual designs made on the floor), catching fish, putting the vermilion mark on the forehead etc., have inspired Parikhanda movements. It is from these partially stylized Parikhanda movements that the Chhau dances have developed. The relationship between the two is so integral that often a dance guru explains a complex dance movement first by demonstrating the martial movement and then explaining the process of dance movement by showing the transformation and stylization process. There is also adequate input of Parikhanda training in the training of the Chhau dancer. A trainee is trained in Parikhanda exercises and movements in the first year, in the first phase without sword and shield. Professional dancers also practice these movements in the morning hours, bare body with sword and shield. However, in the evening, these dancers practice the movements with costume, mask and music.
In regard to Mayurbhanj Chhau dances, the basic stance, dharan, of holding sword and shield clearly suggests that they have originated from Parikhanda tradition. In the early stages of its evolution, Chhau dance was simply called parikhanda khela that is the play of shield and sword. It was even known as Chhau Juddha (Chhau combat), in one area. Also, early dance numbers such as 'Ruk-Mar', that is defence and attack and 'Astradana' that is sword play, were very close to Parikhanda movements. Several early dance numbers in Seraikella Chhau repertoire such as Durga and Hunter have also been solely choreographed keeping in mind the Parikhanda exercises. Some local scholars have suggested that the word Chhau itself derivers from Chhauni, meaning military cantonment.
Here it would be worth while to refer to the prevalence of paik, a martial dance. Though the tradition of paik dance has declined in recent years, it had a strong tradition in the Chhau dance belt. The paik dance seems to stand mid-way between the martial art, Parikhanda, and the fully evolved Chhau dances. There are other dances prevalent in the region, such as, Dandnacha, which have the same character as paik. While some of these survive and co-exist with the dying tradition of Parikhanda as well as with the fully alive tradition of Chhau dances, many others despite having strong martial traits, have disappeared.
Traditionally, paik dances are performed every year after Durga Puja or during Dussehra celebrations in September-October. Paik dance is performed by large groups of 15-20 dancers with several percussion instruments. The dancers are dressed as warriors with turban, helmet, iron covers for hands and chest. They hold weapons such as sword, and a curved dagger. The dance postures strongly reflect combative character and the dance passes through several stages. Each stage represents a particular martial or acrobatic unit. Some of these are: palta, half turn; bani, fast combative movement with a large stick; banethi, a stick with burning torches at both the ends; mundi, head touching the ground with a somersault; suna, vault, one hand touching the ground; Chakra suna, vault without touching the ground; hanmantya, both hands touching the ground with legs up in the air: lohunia, jumping through the ring with burning torches etc. The dance makes most striking formations and groupings. Actually, it is these choreographic formations that impart an artistic dimension to this martial dance. The dance is accompanied by shrill cries which act as stirring invocations for war.
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