From the deserts and deltas of the world's longest and most regular river (the White Nile originating from deep in Equatorial Africa and the Blue Nile high in the Ethiopian Mountains) emerged an astonishing 4,000-year old civilization. The two rivers converge on present day Khartoum and together they combine to form one of the world's longest rivers. Agriculturally based, this early civilization left behind the amazing technological achievements of its temples, tombs and, its most lasting landmarks, the Pyramids. The imagination and zest of its people for life wove as complex a web of belief and ritual, cultural explanation and rationale, which could be found anywhere at any time.
The Ancient Egyptians and their gods functioned for a time period, which was approximately twice as long as our current Christian era. The Nile dwellers with the huge desert as natural surrounding had the safety of isolation in which to develop their completely unique approach to life. Beginning in pre-dynastic times Neolithic hunter-gatherers settled along the river's edge as the Sahara dried out, gradually cooperating more and more in the management of the annual torrent that occurred with dependable regularity, bringing with it a rich black alluvial silt to fertilize their Fields. This silt gave the name to their country - 'Khemet', the Black Land - and it was surrounded by the aridity of the Red Land - 'Dehsret'. From independent beginnings they organized themselves, firstly into villages, next to federations of communities, then small provinces, the later 'nomes'.
 Left Image: Pyramids at Giza: in the foreground the three smaller pyramids of Menkaure's queen, and behind them that of Menkaure himself. In the centre, the Oyramid of Khafre, with the considerable part of its outer still in place at its apex. The pyramid seems the largest of the clump, because it was build on higher ground, but it is the last pyramid in line, the Great Pyramid of Khufu, that is the earliest, the largest and the most important of the whole group. Its fantastic sizes (over 2.3 million stone blocks averaging 2.5 tons each) and the perfection of its construction make it one of the foremost architectural achievements of mankind.
The two large kingdoms emerged by 3500 BC - the Two Lands: Upper Egypt and the Lower Egypt.The Upper Egypt was from the first cataract of the Nile at Elephantine almost to the edge of the delta. It was known as 'White Land' with its capital city at Nehken (Hieraconpolis), near Edfu. The kingdom's supreme being were the hawk-headed Horus, and vulture goddess Nehkbet, and the king wore the tall White crown. Lower Egypt, the delta area itself was called the Red Land with its capital city at Pe, also called Buto. Here the king wore the Red crown.They worshipped the cobra-goddess Edio, along with the composite animal god Set. Around 3100 BC these two kingdoms were finally united, but their origins were never forgot-ten, instead the duality was celebrated in the title 'The Two Lands' and the new Double crown combined both the red and the white crowns, with the two protective goddesses included.
Being on the Mediterranean, the Nile delta was the meeting point for trade, immigration and technology from the continents of Asia, Africa and Europe; while the south, with considerably less contact with the outside world, retained its traditions and culture much more deeply.
Narmer, also known as Menes united the Two Lands. Thus Horus of Behdet, the national god of Upper Egypt, triumphed over Set of Ombus, his rival in the Delta, and became the state god of the Two Lands. Narmer established a new capital at Memphis and inaugurated the first dynasty (3050-2890 BC) of ancient Egyptian history. This period saw the evolution of the Pharaoh as absolute ruler, a god himself in his capacity as head of state, and the earthly embodiment of Horus. There was homogeneity of culture yet without the centralization of the later Old Kingdom. The gods of the more influential city similarly acquired national status as the Two Lands fused.
 Left Image: Gesso-painted wooden stele. At right a deceased man being presented by hawk-headed Horus to Osiris. Behind Orisis stands Isis. Stelae were usually made of stone or wood; funerary stelae were left in tombs to ensure a happy and comfortable time in the Underworld for the newly departed. They would inform the gods of the importance of the deceased with his portrait, his name, status and titles, plus all the goods and chattels he was bringing with him such as food, drink and luxuries. There were also votive stelae praising the gods and asking for beneficence; these were usually placed in temples.
From the outset Egyptians were intensely religious and superstitious; the supernatural was closely interwoven with the real in many aspects of everyday life. Furthermore, as the state Supreme Being became incorporated into the government structure, so the primarily agricultural population coped with the everyday hazards of life by recourse to magic, spells, charms and folklore. They appealed to the zooamorphic gods of each hazard to intercede on their behalf - such as the Nile, sowing, harvest, scorpions and snakes, childbirth, etc. - and the local gods with the character of their locality.
As the villages grew into towns, and then to cities, their gods grew in status likewise. Through synthesis and syncretism, the growth of the pantheon reflects the growth of the country. Other features of these early dynasties were the development of building in stone, and the obsession with the correct procedure for attaining life after death, both of which were destined to become lasting cultural habits. The kings of these proto-dynasties built mastaba - stepped - tombs at Neqada, Abydos, Saqqara and Helouam, including the legendary Imhotep's step pyramid - the earliest stone building of its size the world.
There were major advances in the fields of art and architecture; and trading expeditions to Nubia during the 4th Dynasty. 2575 BC ushered the golden age of the pyramids of the Old Kingdom.
During this time, it was believed that only the pharaoh received everlasting life; everyone else could take part through their contribution of service to the pharaoh, both while he was alive in this world and when he went on to eternity. So the construction of the royal pyramid complex became the focus of the whole society, of vital importance to everyone - the pharaoh and his subjects - and huge resources were used to achieve this aim.
At this time there was an attempt to rationalize the incredible number of gods and the wide variety of religious beliefs, into a more cohesive whole. As the larger cities became great religious centers, so various deities merged or became linked in groups or 'families', each with its own distinctive, yet similar, creation myth. The largest cities at the time were Memphis, Heliopolis and Hermopolis.
 Left Image: A stone recumbent sphinx. In Ancient Egypt the image of the sphinx was a powerful religious and royal symbol of power and authority. However the image was adopted largely as an ornament by other cultures - for example as here, the ancient Greek sphinx had a lion's body with a female head and breasts, the whole representing enigmatic wisdom.
By the 6th Dynasty the Old Kingdom was beginning to yield to its own limitations; there was too great a centralization of power, too much tax pressure on farmers, and too many resources were being used in the building and maintenance of the huge pharaonic funerary complexes. The priesthoods and local governors had become very wealthy and powerful at the expense of the pharaoh, and gradually the country broke back down into its provincial beginnings.
The First Intermediate period saw the Two Lands splintered, with foreigners entering the Nile delta, alongside a rapid change and high turnover of Pharaohs. During this time of upheaval, religious beliefs and customs inevitably underwent dramatic changes too. With the idea of the god-king discredited, people now wanted their own personal eternity, and as a consequence Osiris rose to prominence to fulfill this desire.
There was a minor Hierakliopolitan resurgence in the 9th and 10th Dynasties, but a new Theban line, which reunited the country, leading to the Middle Kingdom period, overwhelmed them. Montu, the Theban god of war, became dominant, before giving way to Amun in the 12th Dynasty. This was a period of expansion, immigration and trade. There were campaigns in Nubia to keep the vital gold routes open, and a lot more contact with outsiders coming into the delta; expeditions were made to Punt and into Sinai. The country was reorganized and land reclamation schemes pursued, the highlight of which was the reopening of the ancient irrigation system, repaired to its former glory.
 Right Image: Red quartzite head of Akhenaten. Regarded as the heretic pharaoh for overthrowing all other gods and goddesses in the pantheon in favour of the exclusive monotheistic worship of Aten, till then a relatively obscure manifestation of the sun deity. Whether is was chiefly for religious or political ends is uncertain, but Akhenaten's reign ushered in other changes in the arts of sculpture, painting and literature, which are known today as the Amarna style, after the area in which his obliterated capital was built.
The pharaohs of this 12th Dynasty tried to reduce the power of the local nobility, to establish the dominance of Thebes. But while Amun was the main pharaonic god, they supported other cults too: Ptah at Memphis, Hathor at Dendera, Min at Coptos, Re'-Atum at Heliopolis, Sobek in the Faiyum and Osiris at Abydos. There was also increased democratization of the Afterlife - a result of the universal appeal of Osiris.
At death, regardless of personal wealth or position, one was judged in the presence of Osiris by 42 Assessor Gods, and one's heart went in the scales weighted opposite Ma'at's feather of truth and justice. Passing this test guaranteed eternal life with Osiris, and there was consequently a much wider distribution of non-royal tombs and an increased range of funerary equipment.
The Second Intermediate period came about again through weak rulers and simultaneous dynasties competing from their different bases at Thebes and in the delta at Xois. This internal confusion enabled Middle Eastern outsiders, the Hyksos, to come pouring in to the delta and, for a time, take over almost the whole country. Their leaders became pharaohs, and they adopted local gods and traditions (with the unfortunate choice of Set as their main royal god). The Hyksos brought with them various technological innovations - in arms, construction, metallurgy and agriculture, but relations between them and the indigenous population soured.
In the 17th Dynasty there was another resurgence at Thebes, which finally managed to expel the foreigners, and set the stage for the final great flowering of ancient Egyptian civilization: the New Kingdom 1570-1085 BC. Now Egypt was no longer isolated, but an important part of the ancient Mediterranean world. There was a need for trade and just as important, to establish borders and zones of Egyptian control and influence.
The pharaohs of the 18th Dynasty by these means expanded their country and built an huge empire. They conquered Palestine, reached as far as the Euphrates in Syria, secured the delta to both east and west with fortifications, and penetrated south as far as the 4th cataract of the Nile, and secured their control of the Nubian gold mines. Egypt was asserting itself in the face of increasing competition from Libyans, Hittites, sea people, Nubians and all the other tribes and groups pushing each other onwards in the restless development and exchange of early civilization.
Soon other greater waves would overwhelm them too, but for now Egypt had an empire, with 2, 000 years of history and experience already behind her, and was the wealthiest country in the world, with tribute pouring in from all corners. The capital was at Thebes, and the air-god Amun was combined with the creator sun god Re' into the supreme state god Amun-Re'. His magnificent temple complex at Karnak became the most powerful religious and political centre in the empire. Eventually, through this power, the priesthood would come to wield such influence as to control the royal line of succession and turn Egypt into an ecclesiastical state. The tombs of the pharaohs were hidden in a valley (the Valley of the Kings), cut into rock, as they eschewed the pyramids that were so easily robbed and desecrated. Their families and followers were once again buried nearby in their own necropoli.
The 18th and 19th Dynasties saw a fantastic rise in construction all over the country. Some of the most well known pharaohs achieved such status because of the vast wealth at their disposal, and therefore the sheer number of monuments and buildings, temples, forts, tombs and statues bearing their names. In recognition of their successes the pharaohs heaped treasure on Amun-Re', but as his priesthood became increasingly rich and influential, the Pharaohs had cause to regret it, and tried to curtail their power.
One method the pharaohs adopted to circumvent the priesthood was that of co-regency, when an elder pharaoh had his heir already acknowledged and active in his government. Perhaps Akhenaten (originally Amenhotep IV) and his attempt at monotheism with Aten were mainly to break the power of the priesthood of Amun-Re'. If so it failed, for Aten had no popular acceptance, and was too abstract a deity to appeal to the masses; when Akhenaten died, Aten went with him and the old gods were restored.
By the time of the 20th Dynasty a high proportion of land had passed to the temples, and especially that of Amun at Karnak, to the point where it virtually controlled the whole of Upper Egypt. The priesthood became hereditary' and independent of the pharaoh, forming its own dynasty that became strong enough to rival the state itself. Within the royal line too there were conspiracies and jostling for position that only served to weaken the whole succession. There were strikes too among the royal workmen; dissatisfaction and unrest spread.
Finally when the throne fell to a high priest, Lower Egypt defected, and Nubia broke away. The expanding Hittite and Babylonian nations had already absorbed the nearer eastern possessions. The 21st Dynasty ruled from Tanis in the Nile delta, with only token acknowledgement from Thebes. Gradually relations between the two improved enough for intermarriage to take place between the royal and hereditary priesthood lines, until the two were united in form if not reality.
 Left Image: The pharoahs of the 18th and 19th Dynasties were proud, rich and powerful - and great builders: none more so than Rameses II 'the Great' who ruled from 1290BC to 1224BC. He extended the Temple of Amun at Luxor, which had been started by Amenhotep III. This photography is taken from the Court of Rameses II and looks past the gigantic figure of the pharoah (a similar seated figure sits on the other side) through to the magnificent colonnade of Amenhotep III which leads to his court.
The 22nd Dynasty ruled from Bubastis in the delta and was of Libyan extraction but after an initial increase in prosperity, there was a period of conflict and decline, with numerous simultaneous local dynasties. The 24th at Sais in the Delta, and the 25th, a Nubian line, recognized as far as Thebes. Both the institutions of pharaoh and priesthood were severely weakened at this time; perhaps the priesthood of Amun at Thebes suffered more because the pharaohs were able to 'marry' their daughters to Amun, thus they became a divine wife and therefore unable to marry any mortal. This development manifested the pharaoh's power at Thebes.
After an initially prosperous start the 25th Dynasty came into conflict with the newly emergent Assyrian power that was expanding eastwards. At first held at bay, the Assyrians finally took Memphis in 671 BC, and drove the pharaoh south, from where he briefly counter-attacked. But by 650 BC the Assyrians were in control, ruling through a noble line from Sais.
Eventually, however, Assyrian domination was cast off by the pharaohs of the 26th Dynasty, which had started in 668 BC during the period of struggle. A new development at this time was the use of Greek mercenaries in military campaigns a usage that increased over the next three centuries. The Egyptian authorities specially gave the city of Naucratis to these Greek mercenaries and their hangers' on with the intention of preventing the intermingling of the foreigners with the native population.
As Assyrian power waned, the Babylonians and Medes filled the vacuum, and Egypt found itself making an alliance with its old enemy and with its erstwhile possessions, the Palestinian states, in an attempt to balance this latest threat. But in 539 BC Babylon itself was overthrown by a newly emergent power: Persia, which conquered Babylon and invaded Egypt. Following the siege and fall of Memphis in around 520 BC, the pharaoh was put to death and Egypt became a satrapy of the Persian Empire.
Some Persian kings were more highly motivated than others in their rule over the Two Lands, but by and large the country was ruthlessly exploited with very little being put back in return. Uprisings were pitilessly suppressed, and the Egyptians were forced to tolerate Persian rule, as there was simply no other alternative. As soon as one arose there was an immediate appeal for help - so once again Egypt had recourse to Greek military aid, this time from the city-state of Athens. But with the peace treaty between Athens and Persia of 449 BC, there was only a short period of freedom for the 28th, 29th and 30th Dynasties, before the Persians savagely reimposed their rule in 343 BC. They were to remain in power until Alexander the Great swept their empire into history in 332 BC.
Alexander took Egypt without bloodshed and was widely welcomed as a saviour; and, as in all his conquests, he behaved with foresight and compassion. Local traditions and culture were tolerated and religious freedom encouraged. He hoped to bind his vast empire together with common ideals of mutual freedom and respect, and had he lived no doubt his approach would have had far-reaching effects.
In the short time he was in the country, Alexander reorganized the government, mainly in the military and financial departments. He also accorded the gods particular respect, and traveled to Siwah, the distant oracle of Jupiter-Amun, where he received acknowledgement from the god and therefore acceptance from the native population and eventual deification.
With Alexander's death Egypt fell to his most able general - Ptolemy - who founded a dynasty that spanned 250 years, and saw the Hellenisation of much Egyptian culture, though the exchange was by no means all one way. The Ptolemeic pharaohs adopted the Egyptian tradition of royal brother-sister marriage. They restored and built temples in the traditional manner, and created a hybrid Greco-Egyptian god: Serapis, a combination of elements of Osiris, Zeus, Hellos and Aesculapius.
Under the Ptolemaic pharaohs the Greeks spread out across the country from the cities of Alexandria and Naucratis; they also colonized the fertile Faiyum, an oasis with a large lake fed by the Bahr Yusef, a branch of the Nile that diverges from the main river to the west.
 Right Image:Alexander the Great's bloodless conquest of Egypt was to change the country completely. Welcomed as the man who had rid the country of the Persians, who was crowned in 332BC and stayed in Egypt for six months.
Following Alexander's death in Babylon in 325BC, his general Ptolemy and the dynasty he founded was to rule Egypt from the great new city of Alexandria - planned before Alexander's death - until conquered by the Romans. The Ptolemaic Kingdom was based on trade with the cities of Asia Minor and the Aegean League, which was formed under Egypt's influence. The Greeks restored many of the temples and adopted the worship of the Egyptian gods - albeit with strong Hellenisation: thus Amun became Zeus, Hathor Aphrodite, etc.
Alexander's body was brought to Egypt by Ptolemy - hijacked as it was en route to Macedonia. It is said to have laid in state in Memphis before later burial in Alexandria.
This painting shows Alexander rewarding his captains, after Fernandi Francesco Calle D Imperiali.
The abolition of the old Egyptian aristocracy paved the way for the creation of a new, predominantly Creek, nobility. There was the occasional native uprising, especially in the area of Thebes, but these were always easily suppressed. The only real danger to the Ptolemeic succession came from itself - with constant internal bickering and struggles for succession. Alongside this Hellenisation there was growth in sculpture, and also a huge increase in animal worship - an overlap of Creek and Egyptian religious cultures.
The dynasty ended with the famous Cleopatra, that artful queen who strove vainly to protect her country from Roman dominion. But it was not to be, and with her death Egypt became little more than the granary of the Roman Empire exploited without compunction. Only the occasional emperor showed any personal interest in the country, with only the most token acknowledgement of Egyptian cultural processes. Unlike other provinces of the Roman empire, Egypt was given no autonomy, but was governed directly by the emperor through the prefect.
The Romans followed the example of the Greeks in accepting and adopting the titles of 'Pharaoh and Divine Son since it gave them the legitimacy to rule, and so to exploit the Two Lands for Rome's benefit. But the native culture continued among true Egyptians until the advent of Christianity. Rome, too, eventually succumbed to Christianity, having fought unsuccessfully to suppress this new religion, and finally in 311 BC Constantine, the First Christian emperor, issued the Edict of Tolerance, effectively converting to Christianity as the state religion.
During Emperor Constantine's reign, Christianity spread throughout Egypt, and the government was reorganized into a diocese of six provinces. There were persecutions of pagans and heretics; the old gods and their temples were attacked and the old faiths were destroyed. However it was not until AD 540, that the last temples, on the island of Philae near Elephantine, were closed, and the old ancient gods of Egypt, after almost 4,000 years, died. |
Print
TOP
